"Am I Not a Man And a Brother?"

Josiah Wedgwood (Burslem, Staffordshire, England, 12th July 1730 - Etruria, Staffordshire, England, 3rd January 1795)

Many years ago before I threw open my salon doors, I lived for a short time in the beautiful county of Staffordshire. One of the deservedly favourite sons of that area is Josiah Wedgwood, whom we have welcomed before here on these pages. 

The Wedgwood seal

Wedgwood was not only a talented businessman and inspired potter, he was also a passionate political reformer and was dedicated to the abolition of the slave trade. He first learnt of the reality of slavery from his close friend, Thomas Clarkson, and inspired by the abolitionist cause, Wedgwood produced numerous pieces featuring the seal for the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade. 

Although Wedgwood popularised this iconic image through mass-production and wide sales, he did not actually design the iconic image and this honour belongs to William Hackwood, a modeller in Wedgwood's Etruria pottery.

Wedgwood sent medallions to Benjamin Franklin and donated several hundred to the Society for Abolition to distribute, and soon the image became a fashionable statement. It was worn in jewellery, embedded in trinkets or even hung on walls and the image was instantly recognisable, a perfect example of where politics and art met in the long 18th century.

The Singular Life of "Mad Jack" Fuller

John Fuller (AKA Mad Jack Fuller, Honest John Fuller; North Stoneham, Hampshire, England, 20th February 1757 – London, England, 11th April 1834)

John Fuller by Charles Turner, after Henry Singleton, 1808

Today we meet a man with a very particular reputation; known to history as Mad Jack Fuller, though he preferred Honest John, our salon guest is John Fuller, politician, philanthropist and builder of pyramids!

Fuller was born the son of Reverend Henry Fuller and his wife, Frances; indeed, he was also cousin to one of our previous guests, Sir Hans Sloane. Fuller enjoyed a privileged education at Eton College and at the age of 20 came into a fortune in property both in Sussex and Jamaica on the death of his uncle, Rose Fuller MP. Chief amongst the inheritance was Rose Hill Estate, now known as Brightling Park.

Fuller took up residence as squire of Brightling, and in 1780 began his parliamentary career as MP for Southampton, a seat he held for four years before moving on to become Sheriff of Sussex. As the years drew on he set his cap in the direction of Susannah Arabella Thrale, daughter of Hester, but the young lady rejected his proposal and Fuller never married. Instead, he concentrated on his professional life and returned to Westminster in 1801, this time as MP for Sussex. 

In fact, it was in the House of Commons where Fuller created a dreadful scandal when, in 1810, he drunkenly harangued the Speaker of the House of Commons and was physically removed from the chamber by the Serjeant-at-Arms and a number of clerks. A passionate supporter of slavery, he spoke on the matter on numerous occasions in the House of Commons and was never short of an opinion on most matters.

Fuller's Tomb

In 1811, Fuller supervised the building of a pyramid in the churchyard of the Church of St. Thomas à Becket in Brightling, which was intended to serve as his final resting place. The following year he retied from parliament and transferred his interests to a passionate support of Royal Institution. Here he mentored Michael Faraday and in 1818 he built the Observatory at Brightling, going on to many philanthropic activities.

John Fuller died in London; in accordance with his wishes he was returned to Sussex and laid to rest beneath the pyramid.

The Zong Massacre

Today our tale is a tragic one, a dark chapter in the story of Britain's nautical heritage. When I sat down to tell the story of the drownings at Nantes I found myself thinking of the Zong massacre, a terrible crime that cost some 142 enslaved African people their lives. Cast into the mid-Atlantic, they were left to drown and when the case finally came to court it wasn't a trial for murder, but a disagreement over insurance.

The Slave Ship by JMW Turner, 1840

Originally registered to the Dutch, the Zong had been captured by the Royal Navy and by the end of 1781 was sailing out of Liverpool under the ownership of merchant syndicate including men who had made their fortunes in the slave trade. When the deal for ownership of the ship was finalised it was already off the coast of Africa, with 224 slaves imprisoned on board. The Zong was insured for £8000 and captained by Luke Collingwood, a former surgeon with little command experience looking forward to a lucrative retirement. Collingwood was supported by first mate, James Kelsall and a crew of less than 20. Also on board was a passenger, Robert Stubbs, a former governor who had been removed from his post on account of repeated and serious misconduct.

As the ship sailed on Collingwood fell ill and effective command of the vessel fell first to Kelsall and then, apparently to Stubbs, when Kelsall was suspended for unknown reasons. The number of slaves on board swelled to over 400, the conditions on the Zong growing more barbaric with each day. The command structure in chaos, a number of poor decisions in November 1781 meant that the hugely overcrowded ship was left without enough food or water and conditions on board grew ever more hellish. When the coast of Jamaica became visible on the horizon, salvation was finally in sight but the crew made a catastrophic navigation error. Wrongly believing the land mass was a hostile French colony they turned the ship back into the open sea, sailing over 100 miles before the mistake was noticed. By this point slaves and crew alike were dying from disease or starvation, with no hope of respite.

At this point a stark reality became clear to the fevered Collingwood; if the slaves died on land or on board the Zong, he would receive no money for them. However, if they drowned, an insurance claim could be made for each at a value of £30 per person. On 29th November the crew discussed the plan and by the end of the day, over 50 women and children had been chained and thrown into the sea to drown. A few days later more slaves were murdered in the same manner, with 142 cast into the ocean by the time the ship reached Jamaica. Gravely ill, Collingwood would be dead within days or arrival.

The owners of the ship made a claim for lost cargo against their insurance and, when it was refused, took the underwriters to court. The case hinged on the matter of whether the slaves were killed to save the rest from dehydration or whether they were murdered simply for the insurance money. With the ship's log conveniently lost, Kelsall spoke out against other witnesses, claiming that the ship was carrying enough water to sustain those on board and that he alone had argued against the massacre.

The jury found in favour of the Zong's owners and the insurers were ordered to pay up. They appealed against the ruling and another furious court case ensued. this time though, the witness accounts were so contradictory and the proceedings so muddled that a retrial was ordered. Whether it happened we cannot tell, as the Zong disappears from legal papers at this point.

Outraged that the trial should be over money and not murder, abolitionist Granville Sharp attempted to have the crew prosecuted for the massacre. His efforts were rebuffed by the Lord Chief Justice, William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield but Sharp's crusade continued and the abolitionist cause gathered speed throughout the century. 

Although, in the end, nobody was held culpable for the terrible events on board the Zong, the fate of the murdered slaves brought the plight that thousands endured into the public consciousness. It would be many years before the abolitionists finally found their efforts rewarded but those who died during those terrible days at sea are memorialised today at Black River, Jamaica, where there stands a permanent commemoration to the horrors of the Zong massacre.

From Queen Caroline to Cannes: Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux

Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux (Edinburgh, Scotland, 19th September 1778 – Cannes, France, 7th May 1868)

Henry Brougham by Sir Thomas Lawrence

Today's post is unapologetically self-indulgent as I am marking the birthday of one of my favourite, if somewhat abrasive, characters, whom I first discovered whilst happily adding to my  Pinterest boards many moons since. Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux achieved fame as the advisor to Caroline of Brunswick, bought his way out of a scandal involving Harriette Wilson and enjoyed a long and successful political career before retiring to the sunshine of France!

Brougham was born into a wealthy and influential Edinburgh family, the son of Henry and Eleanora Brougham, who made their home at Brougham Hall. As befitted his station in life, the young Brougham enjoyed the best in education and in his mid teens found himself at the University of Edinburgh, splitting his studies between science and law. His academic career was dazzling and by the age of 25 he was a Fellow of his University; despite his illustrious family connections Brougham was determined to make a success on his own and financed his studies through journalism, eventually founding The Edinburgh Review in 1802, a publication for which he wrote a number of erudite, challenging pieces.

Henry Brougham by James Lonsdale, 1821

The following year Brougham left Scotland to pursue a career as a barrister in London, his fame as the founder of The Edinburgh Review opening the most fashionable society doors to him. The stylish, urbane Brougham became a leading light in Whig political salons and in 1806 joined a diplomatic mission to Portugal on behalf of Charles James Fox. Whilst on the mission he developed a staunch opposition to the slave trade and found his interests diverted away from law and journalism towards politics, eventually becoming Member of Parliament for Camelford in 1810. Just as he had made his mark at university, so to did he throw himself into his political career, speaking often and eloquently in the House of Commons and distinguishing himself in debate.  In fact, Brougham still holds the record for the longest Commons speech, clocking in at six unbroken hours; that's a figure that even we very chatty Gilflurts would find hard to beat!

Tiring of toiling in the rotten borough where he held his seat, Brougham stood in Liverpool in 1812 but found himself utterly trounced; this same year he took office as advisor to Caroline of Brunswick, estranged and loathed wife of the Prince Regent. He was out of the House of Commons until 1816, when he was returned as Member for Winchelsea. Just as he campaigned passionately for the abolition of slavery, now he added the cause of education to his interests, championing schools for the poor and disenfranchised.

His political career back on track, Brougham was to take a new office as Attorney-General to Caroline in 1820. With her husband now king, Caroline found herself in the throes of a messy and vitriolic divorce, the full power of the Tory Pains and Penalties Bill focused on her. Fuelled by accusations of adultery on Caroline's part, the Bill aimed to dissolve the marriage and strip her of her title and she employed Brougham to lead her defence in the Lords. In fact the bill did pass through the House but by a meagre nine votes; fearing an embarrassing defeat in the Commons, the bill was withdrawn and Brougham found himself famous throughout England. One year later the charming and highly eligible bachelor married Mary Spalding, with whom he had two daughters.

Brougham was not without his own scandals and in 1826 was one of the illustrious clients named in the Memoirs of Harriette Wilson, written by the titular courtesan. Invited to buy his anonymity by Wilson and her publisher, John Joseph Stockdale, our hero paid up, saving his name for the time-being at least. Not content with mixing with royals, avoiding scandal and championing reform, he even found time to develop the Brougham, a small horse-drawn carriage!

Harriette Wilson

Happily ensconced in the twin worlds of politics and law, Brougham was not universally popular. Seen as ambitious, arrogant and overly-influential, Brougham's critics could do nothing to stop his still-rising star and in 1830 he was appointed Lord Chancellor and given the title Baron Brougham and Vaux. Whilst in office he passed the Representation of the People Act in 1832 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833, two causes for which he felt very strongly. However, his personal conflicts with his fellow Whigs began to become more prominent and when the government was reshuffled in 1834, Brougham was removed from office.

Statue of Brougham in Cannes

Although he continued to be a force to be reckoned with in the Lords, Brougham now returned to his early loves of journalism and academia and in 1835 visited Cannes whilst en route to Genoa, falling instantly in love with the picturesque surroundings. Just as he threw himself into politics, law and courtesans, the Baron became a pillar of the town, providing funds and leadership with which to improve and develop the burgeoning community where he would eventually die and be laid to rest. Today Baron Brougham and Vaux is still remembered in Cannes thanks to a very fine statue that commemorates this colourful, abrasive and very ambitious fellow.

Life in the Georgian Court, true tales of 18th century royalty, is available at the links below.

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Abolition, Faith and Education: Hannah More

Hannah More (Fishponds, Bristol, England, 2nd February 1745 – Clifton, Bristol, England, 7th September 1833)

Hannah More by Henry William Pickersgill, 1821

It must be something in the air because this seems to be a time for tales of ground-breaking women. Yesterday we met a scandalous, radical lady and today we're staying in female company, this time to meet a passionate advocate of education who found time to be a celebrated author on the side!

Hannah was one of five daughters born to Mary and schoolmaster Jacob More, a man who believed unequivocally that education was not only the right of boys and men. He home-schooled his children until 1758 when he established two school, one for boys and one for girls, which he passed to the keeping of his eldest daughters. It was here than Hannah completed her education; she was a passionate and dedicated student and as a young lady took up the position of teacher there. Teaching was Hannah's passion and she searched for a play that might be suitable for her students to perform as part of their studies. When nothing suitable presented itself, she wrote her own and in 1762, completed The Search After Happiness. The play captured the public imagination and copies of it were sold throughout England.

Continuing to write, Hannah left her teaching career behind when she became engaged to a landowner, William Turner. Turner's initial enthusiasm seemed to cool and after six years without marriage, the engagement was ended. Hannah was devastated and suffered a breakdown; perhaps feeling a sense of responsibility for her predicament, William provided his heartbroken former-bethrothed with a £200 annuity and she left her home behind to travel to London. A meeting with David Garrick proved pivotal for Hannah and before long her plays were being performed on the London stage, the playwright herself forming friendships with the likes of Horace Walpole, Elizabeth Montagu and Samuel Johnson. Her pivotal involvement with the Blue Stockings Society inspired her to write her 1782 poem, The Bas Bleu, or, Conversation, and Hannah became an intimate member of the most elite intellectual circles in London.

With Montagu, Hannah championed the efforts of Ann Yearsley, a Bristol poet who found herself in financial straits. In order to protect Yearsley's earnings from her husband, Hannah kept her royalties in trust but Yearsley came to resent this arrangement and the women fell out spectacularly. Upset by this turn of events, Hannah withdrew somewhat from her social life and concentrated instead on her work.

Portraits in the Characters of the Muses in the Temple of Apollo by Richard Samuel, 1778 (Hannah More is standing, second from right)

Although Hannah had always had a strong religious faith, her faith deepened throughout the 1780s and she left behind her literary circle to move among prominent abolitionists including William Wilberforce. She produced articles and books on the subjects of religion and emancipation, as well as works that dealt with female education and a number of poems and stories. By now settled permanently in Somerset, Hannah wrote at an extraordinary rate, collaborating with Beilby Porteus, Bishop of London, on the multi-million selling series, Cheap Repository Tracts.

By 1800 Hannah and her sister, Martha, had followed their father's lead and established 12 schools for the children of farmers and local workers. Here they were educated in religion and taught how to read. However, Hannah drew the line at teaching the poor how to write; as far as she was concerned, being able to read was education enough.

Hannah's cottage in Cheddar

In her dotage Hannah moved to Clifton, where she received dozens of visitors and well-wishers who wanted to meet this remarkable lady. From the most famous to the most humble, all were made welcome and she talked of her work, her faith and the philanthropic acts which she continued to fund. Hannah lived just long enough to see the successful passage of the Slavery Abolition Act and died in 1833, leaving behind not only a fortune in excess of £30,000 but also a legacy of literature, education and philanthropy that is remembered to this day.

Fanny Wright and the Nashoba Commune

Fanny Wright (Frances Wright; Dundee, Scotland, 6th September 1795 – Cincinnati, Ohio, America, 13th December 1852)

After our tale of dynastic marriage and politically-motivated romance yesterday, it's time to come back down to earth and meet a women who challenged boundaries, travelling halfway across the world in search of a new life.

Fanny Wright was born in Dundee as the daughter of a wealthy political radical, James Wright, and his wife, Camilla Campbell. At the age of three Fanny was already an orphan with a hefty inheritance to support her and she moved from Scotland to live in England with another radical relative, this time an aunt. Her childhood was spent in deep education and at the age of 16 she returned to the country of her birth, where she focussed all her efforts on writing.

The borders of the United Kingdom proved too stifling for the young woman and in 1818 she and her sister set sail for the United States, where they spent two years criss-crossing the country and learning its way for themselves. All the time Fanny's political interests were deepening, leading her to develop an unshakeable belief in the principles of suffrage, education, emancipation and the rights of women to govern their own bodies.

Robert Owen, by William Henry Brooke

Upon her return to Scotland she took up writing again and published Views of Society and Manners in America, a book that caused a sensation with its critique of American society and strong political views. Invited into radical thinking circles, Fanny returned to America, first in the company of the Marquis de Lafayette and then Robert Owen, with whom she would later found the Free Inquirer newspaper. 

Travelling across the country she found herself drawn to Memphis, where she was inspired by Owen's New Harmony Commune to establish her own community, naming it the Nashoba Commune. Here she intended to provide free education to slaves so that they might find employment and opportunities once free. She sank her personal fortune into the commune, hoping to establish an egalitarian community, though she retained ownership of the slaves who resided there. Her initial plans to educate the slaves until they were able to buy their freedom was not a successful one and the commune began to haemorrhage money.

This caricature mocks Wright's lecture career, with a subservient young man holding her bonnet

Nashoba wasn't Fanny's only interest and she spoke and wrote passionately on behalf of the working classes, gaining notoriety and respect in equal measure. She toured America again to lecture to huge audiences, inspiring devotion in her followers. However, all of this was to take its toll on her health and she was laid low by malaria. By the time she was fit to return to her position at Nashoba, the commune was on the verge of collapse. With funds running dry and sensation engulfing its free love approach, rumours of interracial relationships caused a scandal from which the commune could not recover.  Fanny was forced to close Nashoba and in 1830 the 30 slaves who resided there were freed to travel under her care to Haiti.

During the journey Fanny's beloved sister, Camilla, fell ill and died. Distraught, Fanny began a relationship with a French doctor, Guillayme D'Arusmon. She fell pregnant and, mindful of the scorn that would fall on her child if born out of wedlock, married D'Arusmon. The marriage ended in divorce and Fanny found herself embroiled in a legal nightmare with her former spouse, who had legally taken control of her finances and affairs. As she fought to win back what was rightfully hers, Fanny's health began to fail and she spent more and more time living with her daughter's family.

Fanny's controversial life was to end in the winter of 1852 when she died from injuries sustained after slipping on icy ground. Today she is remembered for her passionate belief in the causes she espoused, remaining true to her ideals and principles to the end. I will leave the final words to the lady herself and the inscription carved on her tombstone.

"I have wedded the cause of human improvement, staked on it my fortune, my reputation and my life."

Josiah Wedgwood, Queen's Potter

Josiah Wedgwood (Burslem, Staffordshire, England, 12th July 1730 - Etruria, Staffordshire, England, 3rd January 1795)

Josiah Wedgwood by Sir Joshua Reynolds

I shall never forget the night that the Prince of Wales, in his cups and demonstrating a most enthusiastic waltz in the parlour, collided with the eldest of we Gilflurt sisters. The violent collision caused her to drop her tea tray,  resulting in a calamitous loss of mother Gilflurt's finest Wedgwood service. Georgie made it up to both mother and sister in his own way and we still have the country lodge to show for it, but I thought the end of the world was upon us, such a scream did my sister send up.

In recognition of that night and the genius of the potter who created some of the finest works England has ever seen, today we are celebrating the birthday of Josiah Wedgwood, late of Burslem, Staffs.

The son of potter, Thomas Wedgwood, Josiah joined the family business at the age of nine as an apprentice to his elder brother at Churchyard Works. His training was put on hold two years later when the boy was hit with smallpox and had no choice but to take to his bed, where he passed the long hours reading and studying his craft. His return to work was fired by a sense of ambition and inspiration and he moved from Graveyard Works to Fenton Vivian as the partner of Thomas Whieldon, one of the country's most respected potters. Here he enhanced and developed his knowledge of ceramics and glazes, learning skills and techniques which would have a huge influence on his later work.

Wedgwood finally went into business for himself in 1759 and in 1763 patented a cream glaze that caught the eye of the Queen of England, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and she commissioned so much of it that it became known as Queen's Ware, eventually appointing him as Queen's Potter in 1762. Alongside this accolade, Wedgwood's accounts book included names such as Empress Catherine of Russia and his pottery, including innovations such as Jasperware, Creamware and Egyptian Black could soon be seen in the most illustrious houses in England. This brought other opportunities for the ambitious potter and he was heavily involved in planning and construction of the Trent & Mersey Canal, providing invaluable transport links that crossed counties.

Not content with innovations in pottery and transport, Wedgwood's social conscience saw him becoming increasingly fired by political reform and passionately supported the abolition of the slave trade. He produced pieces featuring the seal for the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade embedding the image in the public consciousness. Wedgwood campaigned for abolition until his death and the seal cameo became highly fashionable, with Benjamin Franklin commenting that the power of this simple image was "equal to that of the best written pamphlet". His other reforms included decent, if strict, working conditions in his factories, payment for those who could not work due to illness and worker housing near his newly constructed family home of Etruria Hall.

The Wedgwood seal

In late 1794 Wedgwood's health deteriorated swiftly as he complained of terrible pain in his jaw; within two months the innovative potter was dead, leaving behind a body of work that endures far beyond his life. Sought-after and highly-valued today, Wedgwood's pieces retain an air of timeless, classic style and it is an honour to raise a Jasperware teacup and say, happy birthday, Josiah!

Wedgwood's iconic Jasperware

Life in the Georgian Court, true tales of 18th century royalty, is available at the links below.

Pen and Sword

Amazon UK

Amazon US

Book Depository (free worldwide shipping)